Dear Sir,
I feel happy to mail you the first chapter of my thesis on
the subject
“Management Information System in Public Sector”. The
distribution of chapters I have made is as follows conforming to the guidelines
that the university has set. I have now condensed it into 5 chapters instead of
six.
Chapter 1: Systems Concepts & Information Systems
Environment
Chapter 2: System Analysis and its parts
Chapter 3: Input and Output Design
Chapter 4: Code Design
Chapter 5: File Design and File Organization
I have already started concentrating on the next chapter
that is chapter number two which I shall again send to you shortly. I shall be
waiting for your approval on chapter one. Once all the chapters are approved I
shall send you the print out. There are some footnotes also which I have not
marked now. Once I will send you the final print outs I will figure them there.
I need your assistance to make the work as easy and smooth
going as possible.
Regards,
AbdulGhani Mohammed AlSheikh
Hi Abdul,
Chapter 1 is
acceptable. Make sure all chapters follow the guidelines and try to be
very clear and specific with your objective. Wait until you have finished
the first three chapters then send all three together as a package for me to
evaluate. Send via E-mail if possible.
Michael Busler Ph.D.
Management
Information System thesis
Chapter ONE:
The term “Management Information System” M/s, “Information” System,
“Computer Based Management Information System (CBMIS) is ubiquitous term which
one finds in most information systems literature. The conspicuous aspect of
this phenomenon is that all organizations have had some kind of an information
system even though some systems might be nothing more than filing cabinets and
a limited chart of accounts in a ledger. An information system implies a
provision of information, not only to the management of the organizational
system, but also information to external constituents as well. An information
system is a systematic, formal assemblage of components that performs the basic
function of providing information to management for support of planning,
controlling and decision making activities.
Management has been fed with
information in a systematic or unsystematic manner since times immemorial. If
one looks at the work of proponents of scientific management namely Taylor one
realizes that information and management were present then also. Max Weber who
analyzed the bureaucratic model of management also had this concept of mind. In
effect it has been seen that it’s quite feasible for organizations with low
volume, complexity, timing and computational demands to develop a viable
information system without sophisticated computers and related technology.
Information systems have been aiding management since decades without using
computers effectively. An information system is somewhat analogous to a
production system that takes raw material and converts it into a product which
is either utilized by an ultimate consumer, or becomes raw product for another
conversion phase. Similarly an information system converts raw data into a
consumable report or an input for a later processing cycle.
It is an established fact that a
computer system perse is not an information system. But the system’s approach
to management uses it as a basic tool which accelerates the effectiveness of
the system and provides the means for performing certain mundane routine
activities that would otherwise be impossible. It is stressed and impressed
upon that not all formal information systems need a neither computer nor can a
computer necessarily improve a system and all reports generated by computer do
not necessarily qualify as information. Empirical evidence reveals the fact
that installation of a computer in a poorly designed information system normally
results in perpetuation of existing errors at a phenomenal high rate. The focal
point then, is to formalize and perform at a prior time system analysis work
first and apply sophisticated technological tools only if the effectiveness of
the system can be enhanced by such an application. One should rather think of
systems first and then of the technology required to support the system.
A system is an orderly way of
doing things to accomplish some goal. Rather it’s a set of interrelated
activities for procedural behavior. A system is basically of three types namely
technical, power and social but we are interested only in the technical sub
system. The technical sub system uses the computer as a tool for processing
information for management. The system’s approach to management which was
propounded in the late 70’s is based on the basic promise that all managers
irrespective of their hierarchy are rational in thought but get irrational in
decision making due to lack of information processing. Lack of proper tools for
processing information was the basic premise which culminated in a systems
approach to management. The systems theory states that on account of the
information revolution which has occurred on account of economic sociological
and technological factors; it is not humanly possible to analyze data and
process information for the management because of the size and volume of data
and with it has gone beyond humanly controllable limits; and as a result the
technical sub system must use the computer for analyzing data for it to became
information. We can explain this with concrete examples as well. If a company
manufactures tooth paste wants to launch a new product it shall have to analyze
the tastes, whims and fancies, size of the customers, geographical location and
a host of other factors which go about determining consumer behavior and if we
assume that the population of the country is roughly 700 million and out of
this 50% are consumers for tooth paste it shall take 4 years for a company
which employs 100 people only for marketing research to analyze the consumer
behavior and the feedback of launching a new product. Similarly if there are
fifteen vacancies for the post of Computer Analyst and if there are one hundred
thousand applications it shall humanly take 6 months for 5 people who work on a
8 hour shift a day to analyze the applicants. It is in such areas where the
data and its size has multiplied manifold that the systems approach which used
computer based management information system becomes forceful reality. But
before going into details of a sophisticated computer based information
management technology it is a must to design and analyze the system first. I,
in my thesis have taken the analysis part first and then designed the computer
based management information system. The manual system and the transition from
manual to an electronic data processing system have been elaborately explained.
The thesis is based on the life project which is in the process of being
actually implemented for one of the largest public sectors in the country. The
thesis as is evident from the first chapter written above describes the need
for a computerized based M.I.S. that goes on to analyze and design systems and
finally give a real life project which is actually in its transition stage from
manual information system to computerized information systems.
Economists, Mathematicians,
Political Scientists, Psychologists and scholars from various disciplines who
are concerned about the tendency towards the fragmentation of eternal knowledge
and increasing complexity of phenomena have sought a unifying approach to
knowledge and that is done by the systems approach which is any set of
interrelated activities for procedural behavior. Norbert Wiener, a
mathematician by profession observed that information and communication provide
connecting tools for unifying fragments or elements. Simon Herbert a management
political scientist related the systems concept to the study of organizations
by viewing an ongoing system as a processor of information for decision making.
System Analysis and the design
for computer based information systems were founded in general systems theory
which emphasizes a close look at all parts of the system.
General system theory concerns
itself with developing a systematic theoretical framework upon which to make
decisions and it discourages abstract thinking and links external environment.
Idea of system is necessary in conceptualizing the interrelationships and
integration of operations, especially using computers.
System, derived from the Greek
word ‘Systema’, meaning organized relationships between components. A system
must be designed to attain predetermined objectives. It must have
interrelationships between components and organizational objectives to sustain
over sub-system objectives.
Management philosophies have
today become interwoven with computers. Organizational Planning, Strategy and
Decision Making depend on the flow of information which can be tackled
effectively and efficiently by a computer. Computer has been the sophisticated
technological tool for exploitation of mathematical, scientific and commercial
methodology for fulfilling organizational goals. These techniques have been
tapped to reap technologically sophisticated management systems which
accurately evaluate alternatives, make decisions and communicate information.
The computer is the automation tool but it’s the system which provides the
means to attain the organizational goals.
The management information
system strives to collect every matter of prominence and importance in an
organization accurately and effectively. The system then uses these data to
provide comprehensive and meaningful information to all related departments and
functions. Today it is no longer essential to use the computer effectively,
what’s required is to interface man and machine so that the total system
benefits. The most versatile management systems encompass a dialogue between
man and machine.
The design of the M.I.S. should
make a proper analysis of costs and benefits. It must highlight advantages but
it should also focus on the dangerous repercussions of such systems.
Computerized Management Systems can be so rigid that might inhibit vital
innovations. Rigid systems may conceal areas where human creativity and
versatility can achieve benefits over formal discussion rules. It’s on account
of these factors that adequate care must be taken before either going in for
computerized M.I.S. or making modifications to existing M.I.S. A comprehensive
in-depth study organization, its manual system, is a must before elaborate
analysis of system and its final design is implemented.
METHODS OF INPUTTING DATA
There’s no doubt that data capture in its totality is costly.
For business systems it may well account for more than 25% of the total costs
of a system in its entire life. In many cases data input is labor intensive and
therefore it is time well spent designing forma which are speedily and
accurately completed and capable of being efficiently recorded on computer
storage medium. Thus the designer has these three objectives in mind.
1. To produce a cost effective method of input
2. To achieve a high level of accuracy
3. To ensure that input is acceptable to the user
There can be four ways in which source data can be input to a
computer system
1. It can be converted into a computer readable medium by a
person using a keyboard. The commonest media are cards, paper tape and magnetic
tape.
2. It can be read directly by a computer peripheral device.
The commonest examples are: optical mark reader (OMR), optical character reader
(OCR), magnetic ink character reader (MICR), magnetisable plastic card readers
and punched tag readers.
3. It can be keyed directly into a computer from a remote
terminal – such as finds in multi access on line system.
4. It can be produced as a by product (e.g. of an
accounting machine) and read directly into a computer. (i.e. magnetic tape
cassette reader).
The choice of methods depends on satisfying the objectives
stated. (If
the user requires a response of an input message within seconds,
then the online terminal such as visual display unit (VDU) is almost certain to
be the correct method, and design of input is likely to be concerned with
screen layout and dialogue design.) In other instances the source data arises
in such a way that it could be impracticable to read it using OMR, OCR or MICR
because MICR requires a special print format and magnetisable ink, OCR, may
require special print font – but would certainly require good quality printing
or hand blocked characters; OMR may be too restrictive in that only marks can
be read on a document. As a result a vast amount of data has to be converted by
human operators – reading each character of source data one by one and striking
the appropriate key on a keyboard the conversion medium may be cards, paper
tape or magnetic tape.
THE INPUT PROCESS:
Whichever method is adopted it shall include some or all of the
following:-
1. Data recording at source
2. Data transcription on to an input form
3. Data conversion to a computer readable medium
4. Verification of data conversion
5. Data transport to the computer
6. Data validation and authentication
7. Data conversion
8. Control at all stages over the movement and processing
of data
ROLE OF USER
Input design is an area of activity in which the user should
play a significant role. Ideally the user should be responsible for the
accuracy and timeliness of data being input to a computer system. The quality
and timeliness of the output information is almost wholly dependent upon the
data input. It’s imperative, therefore that the systems analyst should act only
as a guide and advisor in this area; to impose something against the
user’s wishes would be counter productive. The user management ought to be
concerned with following aspects.
1. Costs
2. Staffing, Training and Supervision
3. Productivity
4. Quality Control
5. Accommodation and Environment
The main questions the analyst should seek answers to when
considering input design and its relevance to the users who will be originating
the source data:
1. Are the originators employees or customers?
2. What training will they need?
3. What is their motivation?
4. How will they react to change?
5. In what kind of environment do the originators work?
6. Are their constraints on the devices they could use?
7. What response time is appropriate for the data?
8. What kind of service is required validation?
9. Interrogation?
10. Up-dating?
TYPES OF INPUT
It’s helpful to bear in mind the type of input the analyst is
concerned with designing. They may be categorized as:-
1. External to the organization, e.g. purchase invoices
2. Internal communication within the organization
3. Computer operations input, e.g. job control parameters
4. Data capture
There is need to reconcile possible input methods with the
operating requirements of the user. It’s of little use to expect a salesman to
complete a complicated form in a customer’s office or to expect factory workers
to comply with sophisticated method of production control. Also, the provision
of input may be the only contact that majority of employees have with computer
department. If they regard this provision of input as a tedious and unrewarding
activity, they shall be resistant to data processing activities and the quality
of information will suffer. The simplicity and case of data capture and
correction may be reconciled with the need to present data to the computer in a
format and sequence that is acceptable. Ideally the data should be recorded in
a machine process able form as a byproduct of the actual transaction or event
as it happens. This is possible, but can be both expensive and unsatisfactory
for other reasons. Economy, availability of trained staff, machine and
servicing capabilities frequently cause centralized data preparation. If
centralization is to be adopted then due consideration has to be given to the
transmission of data. Most methods are suitable for operation on either
centralized or remote basis. Methods of capturing data are numerous. The choice
between them depends largely on application involved, overall system timing
requirement, and volumes of data to be processed and cost of equipment in
related to benefits derived.
1. Card Punches (unbuffered):-
Card punches are electro mechanical devices for automatically
producing punched cards by a keyboard operation. Most commonly they use a 80
column card. About 8500 key depressions per hour can be regarded as an average
work rate.
2. Card Punches (buffered):-
Similar to the other type of punch but with a built in dual buffer
memory; memory is also used to hold, format, correction and control programs.
The buffers work alternatively while the operator keys data into one buffer the
contents of other being punched. Skipping and duplication take place at an
electronic speed. In the verification mode a card is read into a buffer and
compared electronically with the key strokes. Incorrect cards are corrected in
the buffer and keypunching done whilst another card is being verified. Overall
the output may be 25% higher than for unbuffered punch.
3. Paper tape punches:-
Paper tape punches facilitate the punching of variable length
fields and records. Work rate may be 25% higher than for unbuffered card
punches. Data on paper tape is difficult to amend; spliced tape may be
troublesome to read by paper tape readers. Paper tape is cheapest data
conversion device.
4. Magnetic tape encoders:-
Magnetic tape encoders have now been overtaken by processor
controlled keying. (PC/c systems) Encoders are free standing devices, although
small cluster systems were produced (e.g. in a master and stare basis). They
comprise of keyboards, memory, limited logic capability and a limited visual
display (perhaps showing last character keyed.) Output is on magnetic tape,
reels or cassettes, or on to floppy disks. Whilst offering facilities superior
to buffered card punches, the handling and pooling of tapes is an operational
drawback.
5. Processor-controlled keyboards (PCKS):-
Processor-controlled keyboard is also commonly called a key to
disk system. A mini or microcomputer controls a number of keying stations each
equipped with a screen. The computer has a disk drive, magnetic tape unit and a
printer. Some or all of the following facilities may be incorporated variable
length records, full record display on key station screen, check digit
validation, operational statistics.
6. Online Terminals:-
Online terminals may vary from simple keyboards, screens,
printer and batch input facilities. If the terminal is used for large volumes
of data then transmission speed and buffer size are insignificant.
7. Character Recognition:-
By range of devices some are referred to as page readers others
document readers. Generally a document is a piece of paper with a relatively
small of data on it. Whereas a “page” is large A4 size and contains a large
amount of data to be read. Page readers generally have medium speed paper
transports coupled to sophisticated scanning devices whereas document readers
have simpler reading devices but concentrate on high speed transportation.
Optical Mark Readers:-
The page reading devices read hand – or machine made marks on
specially designed forms. The converted data may be output off-line on to any
desired input medium or input on-line directly to the main processor (either
locally or via data transmission facilities). They are more suitable for
numeric than extensive alphabetic data. They eliminate the need to convert the
data by keying, paper feed rate is 300-3000 sheets/hr. The efficiency of this
approach depends on how adept the originators are in entering numbers as marks
on a form.
Optical Character Readers (OCR):-
The page reading OCR devices read not only marks (as for OMR
devices) but also hand printed characters, typed characters, computer printed
output. The most sophisticated OCR devices will read not only full alphanumeric
characters sets but multi fonts. It throughout depends on packing density of
the data on the page but the limiting speed of the scanner may be about 2000
characters per second. Document readily OCR devices (e.g. for vouchers, counter
foils, receipts etc.) concentrate on higher paper transportation and can cope
with, say, 35000 documents per hour.
Magnetic Ink Character Reader:-
These documents – reading devices read highly styled fonts
prepared in magnet sable ink. Broadly crumpled or defaced documents may be read
satisfactorily. There are two main standard fonts – E 13 B and CMC 7. Documents
are transported at up to 45000 documents per hour – and sorted into output
stackers if required. A useful checklist to keep in mind when considering data
capture is shown as follows:-
1. TYPES OF INPUT:-
Will input be batch or
demand, serial or random?
2. FLEXIBILITY OF FORMAT:- Fixed/variable
working.
Does fixed length working mean a high redundancy?
3. Speed:-
What are the speeds of captive, preparation and entry to the
computer?
4. Accuracy:-
True representation or original data; levels of accuracy
demanded; transcription; method used to detect errors.
5. Verification:-
Is it necessary? Where? Sight checking, arithmetical checking by
use of check digits. Re-entry (keyboard) control (batch-level)
6. Rejection rate:-
Do the input media permit
automatic handling at errors?
7. Error rate:-
Is the error rate going to be high or low? What effects they
shall have?
8. Corrections:-
At what point will
corrections be made?
9. Office Facilities:-
Are sorting facilities required? Can the input be physically
filed? Are dual purpose facilities required? Can some part of the input be
prepared in advance?
10. Need for specialized documentation:-
This is influenced by input philosophy but consideration must be
given to directly process able input.
11. Standardization:-
Ensure uniformity of coding
throughout the system.
12. Storage and handling:-
Consider convenience; cost;
volume; wear and tear.
13. Automatic features:-
Consider the following features of data capture devices. Check
digit verification control; totaling; parity checking on-going punching;
reproducing.
14. Hard copy:-
Is the aim to produce the
hard copy?
15. Security: - Following security aspects have to
be taken care of:-
Loss
Distortion of sequence
Computation of data
Fraud
Spoiling
16. Requirement of training staff:-
What clerical skills are
required?
17. Relevance to particular application:-
Are there special techniques
for similar application?
18. Costs:-
All costs of equipment like floor space; operators; supervision;
supplies; back-up facilities have to be seen.
INPUT SPECIFICATION
The documents designed for data input should be specified
formally as part of the installations standard documentation. The NCC clerical
document specification form shown is for this purpose. For defining the input
in computer media the NCC computer file specification and record specification
forms are available.
AUTHOR $44 1969 NATIONAL
COMPUTING CENTRE LIMITED RECORD
SPECIFICATION
NCC
MEDIUM RECORD RECORD RECORD WORDS SIZE FILE
SPECI LAY OUT RECORD DE
LENGTH FORMAT CHARACTER
BYTES FICATION CHART SCRIPTION
SYSTEM
ISSUE R P L NAME SIZE ALIGNMENT PIC
OCC VALUE
DATE FROM TO ON SYS INPRO
When specifying the data the analyst must be precise in stating
all details of the input. Each input for data preparation is given an
unambiguous name, followed by a description of the character code used if more
than one code has been specified in the general description. For input needing
translation into computer media, e.g. original documents needing punching into
paper tape or cards, the specification includes the following:
1. A sample of the document showing whether it is an
existing document or a document specially designed for punching.
2. The source of the document, e.g. time sheets from time
keeper’s office, customer order from sales departments.
3. A statement of any manual screening, editing,
transportation, extension etc which occurs before the document reaches the data
processing centre.
4. A statement of any pre-screening, batching, batch
numbering or processing for control purposes.
5. A sample of any control slips produced.
When the input is ready for entry to the computer, either
directly or via data preparation, each input still has an unambiguous name.
Such input may be magnetic tape files, MICR or OCR documents, paper tape or
punched cards from other programs or processes and for each type of the
specification states, character by character, the format of the input
including.
1. Meaning of all acceptable control symbols.
2. The control of every field whether fixed or variable
length with or without leading zeroes and minimum and maximum possible values.
3. The relation between fields and control symbols.
4. The interrelationships of fields.
FORMS DESIGN
In designing clerical documents for computer input the analyst
should pay heed to the general principles of form design.
Forms are an important means of communication. They aren’t cheap
and a medium sized commercial organization. They probably uses several hundred
types of form-many of them in considerable volume. Their production is costly
but this is outweighed by the cost of entering information on the forms and its
subsequent use. Therefore, it pays to exercise care in the design of a form to
ensure that it is easy to complete and use. A new form must be justified by
assessing that it is the most efficient means of obtaining information,
disseminating information and storing information.
It’s desirable to have a forms controller within the
organization to whom all proposals for new forms must be submitted along with
the case for their justification. Good form control can result in:-
1. Elimination of unnecessary forms
2. Periodic reviews of necessity
3. Reduction of production cost by control over paper and
printing purchases.
4. Minimizing stock holding
5. Efficient form completion and utilization
DESIGN STAGES
The stages of design may be summarized as follows (following
approval to go ahead by the forms controller)
1. Define objective of form
2. Specify its data content
3. Decide upon quantity required and likely method of
production
4. Determine paper size
5. Using a guide sheet, enter title, enter form reference
number, indicate position of any specially located material e.g. address panel
for a window envelope within space left for main contents, enter the items,
notes and instructions.
Output design is a somewhat confusing term. It is used by a
computer professional when referring to the transfer of data from a control
processor to magnetic media as tapes, disks and drums.
Methods of outputting information:-
There are basically four principle methods of outputting
information for people to set upon.
1. Printing, either by impact printer (hammer striking
ribbon and paper) or by non-impact printer (ink-jet, electrostatic etc.)
2. Screen display
3. Microfilm
4. Synthetic speech
Method (1) can be further categorized into
(a) Character or serial printer (one character at a time
printed.)
(b) Line printer (one line of characters printed at a time)
using either a drum printer or a chain printer (these latter two types of
printer are only technical approaches to the construction of a line printer.
In method (1-3) the analyst will be required to define the
layout of information accordingly; to formal standards, partly to facilitate
the programming of the requirements.
Role of user:-
Output design is an area of work in which the user should play a
significant role-although the needs of professional assistance of a Systems
Analyst to describe the operational characteristics of the various devices for
producing and to ensure that his requirements are practicable, within the cost
constraints and do not conflict with other system requirements.
Working jointly the analyst and the user will have to define the
following:-
1. Type of Output
2. Content
3. Format
4. Location
5. Frequency
6. Response time required
7. Volume statistics
8. Sequence
9. Post printing requirements
TYPES OF OUTPUT:
1. External outputs:-
They go outside the organization (e.g. invoices, orders, tax
returns) and therefore, call for special attention as they say directly affects
the organizations business relation with its customers.
2. Internal Outputs:-
They remain within the organization but still require careful
consideration because they may affect the operational efficiency of the total
system.
3. Computer Operations Output:-
These are required within the computer services department (e.g.
usage statistics, control reports etc.)
General considerations to bear in mind:-
In justifying the choice of output media the following questions
should be posed:-
1. Is the cost justified by the benefit?
2. Is the user’s definition of requirements correct?
3. Could two or more outputs be combined to provide a
multi-use output?
4. Is the stated frequency necessary?
5. Is the response time shorter than necessary?
6. Should be it on demand rather than automatic?
7. Should there be more control over contents, format and
sequence?
__________________xxxx__________________xxxx________________________
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